The Journal of Music Archaeology (JMA) is the first specialist academic Open-Access periodical in the field of music archaeology, continuing the spirit of Studien zur Musikarchäologie, which appeared within Orient-Archäologie. It addresses questions concerning the archaeology of sound and rhythmical behaviour of past cultures all over the globe, including the study and reconstruction of certain or possible sound tools, the investigation of soundscapes, especially where intentionally chosen or erected, as well as related historical, anthropological and ethnological research based on iconographies, literatures, and comparative studies reflecting the wide range of approaches and methodologies that has characterised music archaeology from its beginnings.
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Dance is an activity intimately connected to music and sound, typically performed outdoors. It has a social significance that extends well beyond mere entertainment, although does not exclude it. In this article, we aim to focus on dance in the archaeological record of southern Africa. We specifically exploring dance scenes depicted at the rock art sites of the Zimbabwean plateau, focusing on their iconography and social significance. The study follows the criteria established by Garfinkel and Díaz-Andreu et al. for recognising dance scenes in iconographic representations. These criteria serve as a reference point for reviewing information from ethnographic sources about dance in southern Africa. After describing the dance scenes published so far, the study cross-references the types of dances revealed in the rock art of the study area with the information from the ethnographic sources. The findings highlight the prominence of ritual dances, often gendered and involving altered states of consciousness, as central themes in the rock art. While this research provides a preliminary framework based on existing literature, it underscores the need for further fieldwork to uncover additional sites and explore the relationship between dance scenes and their surrounding landscapes.
Although the aulos was one of the most important musical instruments of the ancient Graeco-Roman world and has a rich history of research, certain significant archaeological finds have only recently become the subject of extensive music-archaeological study. This article, together with Gunvor Lindström’s and Stefan Hagel’s contributions to this volume, present the results of the latest research carried out on an exceptional set of Hellenistic wind instrument fragments from the Oxus temple in Takht-i Sangin, Tajikistan. This contribution gives a summary of the previous and current research on the Oxus find, as well as an introduction to constructional aspects, including a classification of the preserved instrumental sections. It also provides a complete catalogue of all individual Oxus fragments with photographic documentation, detailed measurements, and a brief description.
This article examines the archaeological context of the Oxus Auloi, ancient wind instruments unearthed at the Oxus Temple in Takht-i Sangin, Tajikistan. Based on excavation records, the instruments were likely produced in the 3rd or early 2nd century BCE and deposited around the mid-2nd century BCE. Their spatial distribution in Corridor 6 – a space used for storing damaged or retired votive offerings – provides clues about their ritual treatment and fragmentation. The article situates these instruments within broader traditions of votive practice and ritual sound in Hellenistic Bactria, arguing that although they exhibit Greek stylistic traits, they were likely produced locally, reflecting cross-cultural entanglements in the region.
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The aulos parts retrieved from the Oxus temple at Takht-i Sangin, Tajikistan, some of them frag­mentary, are studied with respect to possible reconstructions of instruments or parts of instru­ments and the musical evaluation of these in the light of our knowledge of contemporary music. Even though half the material may be lost, recurring patterns indicate that some of the pipes fol­lowed a specific, obviously traditional design. Apart from these simpler instruments, others exhibit three different kinds of mechanisms for pitch adjustment, two of which have so far been undocu­mented. The predicted pitches are perfectly compatible with a late-Classical Greek musical system that had previously been reconstructed on the sole basis of textual evidence. The Oxus auloi thus form the first material evidence for one of the rivalling musical schools of the fourth century BCE.
The organological system of pre-Hispanic flutes
Our understanding of pre-Hispanic music is closely linked to our understanding of its organology. Based on extensive research into sound tools in South America, certain considerations will offer a new perspective on the topic as a whole. These considerations add a new layer of complexity to our understanding of pre-Hispanic sound design, which is reflected in the systematic organisation of musical instruments on the continent. I will use the ‘antara’ type of flute as an example to illus­trate some of these developments. ‘Antara’ is one of the organological categories of Andean pan­pipes. I will describe three systems used to modify the sound of the antara: the double flute, the complex tube, the palq’a tube and the collective flute, which is designed to drastically increase its complexity.
The chest monochord zithers in ancient Sri Lanka
Chest monochord zithers represent a significant category of string instruments found through­out the Indian Ocean region, with historical evidence tracing back to the late 6th century in South and Southeast Asia. This study investigates the depictions of chest monochord zithers in ancient visual representations in Sri Lanka, aiming to identify their structural components and assembly methods across different historical periods. Through a multidisciplinary approach that includes iconographic analysis, cross-comparison, and documentary examination – along with visual illus­trations – the research also integrates literary and ethnological materials. The findings reveal mul­tiple variants of chest monochord zithers and propose three assembly methods corresponding to historical phases spanning from the late 6th to the early 19th centuries.
This ethnomusicological, anthropological, and archaeomusicological study examines pre-modern conceptualizations of sound, ‘music’, and spatiality in northern Sweden before trains, electricity, gramophone, and radio arrived, through the lens of a specific body of material: mentions of sound and ‘music’ in recorded folklore accounts of the supernatural race known as the vitra and the ‘supernatural’ infrastructures known as vitra paths. The article introduces an extensive body of material – including both written records and sound recordings – from the northernmost land­scapes of Sweden, especially Lappland, Västerbotten, and Ångermanland, with particular emphasis on Lycksele and Degerfors parishes. According to folklore, the vitra lived underground, in the woods, inside the mountains, and outside human culture. They were encountered along the paths they traveled through in the landscape, and especially in auditory and musical experiences. Vitra beliefs are documented in oral descriptions and in Sámi vuole, Swedish herding tunes, and other tunes attributed to vitra. Vitra ‘music’ has been described as strong, beautiful, chromatic, and dis­sonant, and could be vocal or instrumental. This study addresses the pre-modern reception of sound and ‘music’ through theories of hearing/listening, soundscapes, and acoustemology. It offers new per­spectives on how people in the area studied have understood their sounding reality in relation to natural spaces, landscapes, and soundscapes. It presents an interpretation of the cul­tural meanings of vitra paths as an originally Sámi concept related to shamanism and Saivo, which mixed with Swedish and Finnish folk beliefs. The resulting transculturation was specific to the area and pro­duced the acoustemological and sound-musical-spatial infrastructure concept of vitra paths, which have been perceived – along with vitra sounds – as spatial framings of vitra areas. The study ends with a discussion of pre-modern conceptualizations of sound and ‘music’ before the modern con­cept of music was established in northern Sweden (and all of Western culture) with the advent of modernity.
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Doublepipe reeds: Phragmites, straw, and data-logging for distributed reed research
This article focuses on some questions that fundamentally shape the revival of ancient double­pipes. These surround the choice of material used for reed-making, interrogating what ancient Greek sources, specifically Theophrastus, report in this regard. These testimonies are interpreted through the lens of our own experience as reed makers and performers of ancient doublepipes, comparing the results obtained from culms of different species, growing locations, and harvesting times. Issues that negatively influence the research aiming to develop reliable reconstruction of ancient reeds are discussed. These include ad hoc gathering of data, less than rigorous analysis, and knowledge silos prone to bias. This leads the authors to propose a method of cataloguing culm harvests and manufactured reeds that uses accessible technology to facilitate collaboration and build stronger data with an open science ethos.
How do we perceive sounds of originals and replicas of archaeological metal sound objects?
The history of metal idiophones dates back as far as metalworking itself. These sound objects served various purposes, such as attracting attention, displaying social status, and practical use in signalling. While once integral to everyday life, these sound objects are now rarely seen outside of museums or medieval markets. In the project “Metallic Idiophones from 800 BC – 800 CE”, original and replicated metal idiophones from Central Europe were examined for their acoustic properties. Within the group of examined objects, variations in construction, shape, and alloys based on era and region can be seen. In this study, a selection of 21 original and replicated idiophones that cover most of the variations are examined for the subjective perception of their sounds. Participants in the online listening experiment (n=102, mean age = 35.6) rated sounds on pleasantness, brightness, sharpness, complexity, activation, and valence. Personality traits, musicality, preferences for sound jewellery, and beliefs in object properties were also assessed. While 75% showed low pref­erence for sound jewellery, some associated it with high social status or metaphysical abilities. Belief in these abilities correlated with openness and preference. No age or gender effects were observed in sound ratings. Overall, sound level negatively correlated with pleasantness and posi­tively with sharpness, activation, and valence. Sounds with higher tone-noise-ratio were perceived as brighter and sharper. Bell sounds were rated brighter, sharper, and higher in valence/activation than chimes, but lower in pleasantness. Though not directly applicable to the past, the study re­vealed effects related to human hearing rather than socio-cultural significance. Loud, bright, and sharp sounds were rated unpleasant, suggesting a shift from jewellery to signalling use.
This paper presents the study of a sample of pre-Columbian whistling vessels from Teotihuacan, Mexico, in terms of their organology (morphology, construction and functionality), sonority, iconology and sound symbolism, contributing to the interpretation of their possible uses and cultural contexts during the Classic period of Mesoamerica in a time range of 100–650 CE. In addition, the instruments are com­pared with possible predecessors, contemporary variants, and adaptations from Oaxaca and the Maya area, revealing interrelations with other cultures. Apart from a thorough examination of the accessible sound artefacts, and the comparison with published specimens, the construction and subsequent test of a series of experimental reproductions are also taken into account.
The image and connotation of small sculptures on bronze drums in Southern China
Lengshuichong type (‍冷水冲型‍), Lingshan type (‍灵山型‍) and Beiliu type (‍北流型‍) bronze drums are collectively known as ‘Large Bronze Drums’. They were popular in Guangxi and Guangdong from the Han to Tang Dynasty (202 BCE – 907 CE), and were characterized by their large shape and numerous small sculptures located on the drum face or foot. In addition to the main frog motifs, there are also depictions of horses, cattle, birds, tigers, aquatic animals, and scenes of human-animal interactions such as riding, plowing with oxen, children playing with turtles and watching frogs fight, etc. The position of the sculptures reflects the playing method of each type of bronze drum: drums with sculptures on the face are generally played while placed flat on the ground, whereas drums with sculptures on the body are typically played while suspended. The sculptures on the bronze drums integrate elements of Lingnan culture, Central Plains Han culture, and Dian culture, reflecting the caster’s contemplation of the universe, nature, and their relationship with humanity.
Ceramic sound tools using clay as a raw material have been produced since the very beginning of human history. This was also the case for the cultures that inhabited the area comprised by pre­sent-day Poland. So far, over 1,200 ceramic rattles or their fragments have been discovered in this area. They are the subject of interdisciplinary research, using various methods from archaeology, musicology, acoustics, and even mechanical engineering. The state of preservation of the artefacts is often unsatisfactory, and thus important information about their original behavior has been lost. Traditional reconstructions of ceramic rattles restored their appearance only, without recon­structing the basic function of sound production. In order for the sound to be reliably recon­structed, the shape of the rattle, the material from which it was originally made, as well as the entire technological process must be precisely recreated. This is an extremely difficult task, espe­cially in the case of poorly preserved objects. In these cases, reverse engineering methods using numerical modeling are often of use, because they allow the determination of the frequency struc­ture of the rattle sound spectrum. Using reverse engineering techniques, it is possible to build a model that will allow us to recreate at least some of the sound characteristics of the reconstructed ceramic rattles.
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Musical and dance motifs on Roman engraved gems of the Augustan Era
This paper presents a selection of Roman engraved gems (cameos and intaglios) which are deco­rated with musical and dance motifs, focusing primarily on artifacts dated to the Augustan era. The iconography of gems from this era varies, including figures that hold or play a musical instru­ment or dance, or sometimes only a musical instrument that covers the surface. The musicians and dancers are usually figures derived from Greek mythology and religion. This paper has three aims: first, to classify the motifs according to the mythical figures or musical instruments that they rep­resent. Second, to present/describe their iconography, and third, to interpret, how these objects were used by Roman rulers. I divided the gems examined into four categories: a) objects related to Apollo’s iconography; b) Dionysian themes; c) musical motifs with tritons; and d) single musical instruments.
The great relevance of music and sounds in antiquity is contrasted by the fact that sounds have faded away and cannot be reproduced; only the echoes in archaeological, iconographic and literary sources have been preserved. The sources on ancient music are thus the result of a remarkable medial transformation process from sound to images and texts. This medial transformation has to be revealed through a critical examination of contexts and genres to open up new perspectives on the meaning of sounds in Roman antiquity. Through our concept of “Klang-Raum” (Soundspace), the corresponding analysis of the sources enables the reconstruction of manifold urban sound­spaces. Taking the funeral procession, the pompa funebris, as an example, we demonstrate how the synopsis of different source genres reveals a complex picture of the significance of sound and mu­sic in the Roman funerary ritual.
Metallic idiophones 800 BCE–800 CE in Central Europe: Function and acoustic influence
Our project is focused on metal sound objects of the Early Iron Age (Hallstatt Culture), the Roman period, and the period of the Avar Khanate in the Carpathian Basin (Early Middle Ages). The idiophones originate from burial and settlement contexts. Our goal is to gain new information on their function, on tonal influence on ancient peoples’ daily lives, and their impact on society. This interdisciplinary project combines archaeological, metallurgical, acoustical, psychoacoustical, ethnomusicological, and psychological methods supported by experimental archaeology and handcraft experience, as well as by ancient written and iconographic sources. In this article we report on the status of our current results. We present three case studies, one for each period, and an acoustic and psychoacoustic overview of all currently investigated sound objects. Analyses of textile remains adhering to pellet bells complete this paper.
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The turtle shell idiophone is an instrument known from iconographical and archaeological sources from the Preclassic through the Classic Period of the Maya culture (250 BCE – 900 CE). It appears in historical scenes depicting ritual sacrifices, processions, and dancing, and is typically included in a percussion band along with gourd rattles and a tall, cylindrical drum. The mythological contexts of the turtle shell idiophone appearance provide more information on the possible symbolic sig­nificance of its sound. The author analyzes all known depictions of this idiophone and contextual­izes them with archaeological findings, providing comprehensive information about the way this musical instrument looked and contexts of its use. Ultimately, the interpretation of the turtle shell’s sound as symbolically connected to the sound of thunder is verified.
Kakui’s Hakase-Shi-Kuden-no-Koto in modern English translation
The present work is a modern English-language translation and annotation of Kakui’s (1237-?) Hakase-Shi-Kuden-no-Koto, the earliest dated medieval Japanese manuscript to give specific details regarding the design and function of the go-in bakase, itself a system of diastematic neumes prevalent in Shingon-sect Japanese esoteric Buddhist circles from as early as the thirteenth century used for recording, as well as recalling, their hymnody. Hakase-Shi-Kuden-no-Koto has the secondary distinction of being the earliest dated treatise on Shingon-sect Shōmyō oral transmission of any kind, and it has the tertiary distinction of being, to the translator’s knowledge, the only extant medieval Japanese manuscript to provide a comprehensive table of medieval Japanese neumes. The treatise has been preserved in a manuscript in the hand of the eighteenth-century Shingon priest Reizui (ca. 1756). Rezui’s copy is currently housed at the Koyasan University Library in Wakayama prefecture, and it is upon this version of Kakui’s text that the current translation is based. This translation is intended to provide both a point of entry into the world of Japanese, and indeed East Asian, neume studies for musicologists, and a point of reference in the necessarily collaborative endeavor of internationalizing the field of comparative liturgy. With that in mind, the footnotes include references to neumes from the notational systems of the Latin and Byzantine Christian churches of late antiquity and medieval times that are, to the translator, obvious graphic equivalents to neumes given by Kakui. This is done not to suggest any particular historical interpretation, but rather to identify phenomenological similarities that beckon to be explored for their historico-musicological significance.
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On experimental reconstructions of the mammoth ivory flute from Geißenklösterle Cave (GK3) and other Palaeolithic wind instruments from South-West Germany
The present paper provides a multidisciplinary approach integrating musicological, acoustical, and manufacturing aspects to the archaeological study of the mammoth ivory instrument from Geißenklösterle Cave (GK3). We present information on the archaeological background and the find history, and new insights into the playing technique of the instrument, confirming that GK3 was designed as a flute with a notch (M. Malina, S. C. Münzel). Subsequently, physical parameters causing pitch variability in general and their impact on the response of the low register of extended reconstructions are explored (G. Dalferth), before actual experiences of the chaîne opératoire of the GK3 ivory instrument are supplied (W. Hein). Due to its incompleteness, this Palaeolithic instrument allows for variability in reconstructing. A comparative tonal analysis of eight GK3 reconstructions in different lengths was conducted (A. F. Potengowski), offering new clues to possible musical intervals of the original instrument. Finally, the requirements for future research are considered.
Since the discovery of a fragmented Ice Age wind instrument was made in 1994 at a base camp of Palaeolithic reindeer hunters in Grubgraben/Kammern in Lower Austria, different attempts of reconstructing the aerophone have been conducted. Due to the fact, that both ends of the bone are broken predepositionally, varying options of reconstructions have been discussed since 1997. The most prominent research questions remain: How was the instrument likely played, how did it soundand how can the sonic results of reconstruction experiments be displayed and interpreted? This paper will build a bridge from the first detailed research, carried out in the late nineties, to today’s more wide-spread field of scientific research on Palaeolithic aerophones in order to shift the attention to possibilities of reconstructing the Grubgraben artefact additional to those first attempts and to contextualise it. In the course of this, the main focus is on studies of the instrument as an end-blown flute and the resulting tonal properties and pitch ranges, as they were presented and discussed at the 11th Symposium of the International Study Group on Music Archaeology in Berlin in November 2021by Author 1 and Author 2
Experimental restoration and reconstruction in music archaeology
Restoration attempts to recover the original shape of excavated musical artifacts that have been damaged. Reconstruction is primarily focused on unearthed musical instruments or those depicted in images, and aims either at creating reproductions of playable replicas and imitations, or at simulative manufacturing and model reconstruction. Restoration, on the other hand, can be carried out in tangible or intangible ways. Tangible restoration can be perceived visually, while intangible restoration is instead sonic, and therefore aurally perceptible. Restoration not only recovers the integrity of fragmentary instruments, but also, if possible, reconstructs the sound of the original instrument based on pitch measurement and analysis. Restoration can also be applied to musical iconographic sources and musical textual symbols, such as musical notations and sur-viving classical texts. The restoration of musical notation is not the same as transcription of musical score. The restoration of epigraphic texts aims mainly to restore blurry and otherwise unclear or missing characters. Reconstruction, on the other hand, is a kind of simulation experiment that uses physical or virtual manufacturing to copy, imitate, and reproduce musical remains, for the purpose of exploring ancient musical practices. Based on excavated objects, musical instruments can be copied or imitated, while simulative experiments based on iconography are necessarily limited to speculation.
Different blowing techniques for Palaeolithic aerophones: Animal calls, clarinets, and flutes
This article examines how individual approaches in experimental music archaeology may produce different results in reconstructing Upper Palaeolithic aerophones. The paper reveals how sound tools have been used by both prehistoric and modern hunters to imitate animal calls or to chase their prey in a specific direction. The best examples of such practices are the phalangeal whistles and a possible scraper, which have been found along with the remains of Neanderthals in Europe. A possible scraper was recently discovered in the Middle Stone Age African Border cave. Early percussion instruments like drums or different kinds of idiophones might have had multiple functions for the nomadic hunters. From the 1990s to 2009 a number of new finds of possible Palaeolithic aerophones initiated various experimental studies. Unfortunately, many important questions could not be resolved. I intend to revive the discussions on playing techniques on one hand, and to contribute to the arguments for the non-human origin of some finds on the other. After discussing sound production techniques of simulated animal calls and summarising the possible use of sound-producers as hunting tools, this article briefly presents two possible reconstructions with reeds and two different techniques of blowing a flute without any mouthpiece.
Hundreds of possible prehistoric pottery drums made in Central Europe, mainly from the Late Neolithic (especially the TRB culture) have been found. Their forms vary from funnel-shaped, goblet to hourglass. It is not difficult to imagine equivalent or alternative forms of drums made from hard plant tissues, which are missing in the archaeological record during these or even other periods. Aside from a thought experiment based on archaeological knowledge, experimental and experiential research is presented here with three main examples of wooden drums – a simple frame drum from a branch imaginable since the Palaeolithic, a cylindrical double-headed drum made from a log with a rotten inside, and a wooden alternative to a TRB goblet drum that is compared to a ceramic replica of the same type of TRB drum in terms of material characteristics, technology, tools, skill, productions costs, time requirements and durability. The experience and results prove that simple frame drums are the fastest and the easiest option, followed by cylindrical drums made from logs, however production costs of wooden vessel drums greatly exceed those of pottery ones. Thin walls make ceramic drums much worse in terms of manipulation, playing and durability, but fairly better in clear and loud sound production. The presented examples are closely related to Central European prehistory, but they may serve as valuable analogies to other geographical or cultural contexts as well.
The ‘talempong batu’ lithophone of Talang Anau (West Sumatra) and its astonishing tuning system
In 1995 I was asked to acoustically analyse recordings of a nearly unknown lithophone from a small village in West-Sumatra. The talempong batu consists of six large stones of unknown grey to beige material, which look quite rough and natural and are approximately 100 to 150 cm long, 30 to 40 cm wide and 15 to 25 cm thick. All six stones show a complex spectrum with inharmonic overtones that is typical of vibrating 3D objects. The interval matrix between the lowest partials of all six stones was determined. The analysis of the tuning system showed quite unexpected results: the four lowest stones establish a complex system of intervals, which perfectly matches some intervals that are known as perfect major third (5/4, 386.31 cent), ‘Pythagorean’ ditone (81/64, 407.82 cent), and syntonic comma (81/80, 21.51 cent). The deviation between these theoretical intervals and the measured intervals from the instrument is less than the just-noticeable pitch difference (JND) that the human ear can detect. If it is assumed that this system did not simply evolve by chance, its existence allows us to draw some important conclusions on the cultural background and capabilities of its creators.
Reflections on archaeomusicological practice in South America
This paper aims to describe some problems and issues that have emerged from the practice of archaeomusicology in South America, especially in the Andean region. Some methodological approaches emerge from the specific problems of organological studies of pre-Hispanic objects, related to the evidence about sound use and the interpretation of sound by local cultures. This article presents four features of Andean music that illustrate some of the main methodological approaches that must be utilized when studying pre-Hispanic music in the Andes; the tone quality, the organological expansion from a singular object to multiple objects; the physical movement of musician and hearer as part of the sound properties, and musical performance as part of a social exchange between musicians and listeners. Each of these features offers a new perspective on archaeo-musicological studies, as well as on the contributions of the field to a greater understanding of new discussions in present society. The focus of this article will be to understand the ‘sound object’ as an acoustic object, as one or more objects, as related to the surrounding ambient, as a moving object, and as a modifier of the player’s or listener’s experience.
Pre-Columbian Maya valveless tube trumpets
There are some 77 representations of non-conch shell pre-Columbian trumpets known, but only one extant ceramic version survives. The others are known from paintings, engravings, and sculptures. Of these there appear to be two primary types: long-widening tube trumpets and wrapped trumpets. In this paper I discuss the evidence for these instruments, their materials and means of manufacture, their sonic signatures, and their uses.
Some notes on woodwind instruments in al-Fārābī’s Kitāb al-Mūsīqī al-kabīr
Al‑Fārābī (d. 950 CE), the so-called ‘Second Master’ (Aristotle being the First Master), is known for his influential works on philosophy, especially his commentaries on Aristotle, as well as for his works on logic, physics and metaphysics, ethics, and politics. It was on behalf of al‑Karḫī, Caliph ar‑Rāḍī’s (r. 934–940 CE) wazīr, that al‑Fārābī wrote his Grand Book on Music, explaining musical concepts such as rhythm and melody to the wazīr. As a logician and practicing musician, he combined and improved upon different sources, such as Greek musical theory, as well as on the Arabic authors and musicians al‑Kindī (d. after 870 CE) and Isḥāq al‑Mawṣilī (d. 850 CE). In this paper, I discuss several issues related to woodwind instruments mentioned in al‑Fārābī’s Grand Book on Music. Al‑Fārābī expounds on their interconnections with the tonal production of other instruments, specifying their tone system in terms of finger positions on the fretboard of the ʿūd. Further questions address the relation between theory and practice, as well as some considerations about the modes that seem to be common on woodwinds.
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